make Fertilizer

Fertilizer is a substance added to soil to improve plant growth and yield. First used by ancient farmers, fertilizer technology developed significantly as the chemical needs of growing plants found. Modern synthetic fertilizers mainly consists of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium compounds with secondary nutrients added. The use of artificial fertilizers has increased the quality and quantity of food available at this time, although their long-term use by the environmental debate.Like all living organisms, plants are composed of cells. In these cells the metabolism of many chemical reactions occur that are responsible for growth and reproduction. Because plants do not eat food like animals, they depend on the nutrients in the soil to provide a chemical basis for metabolic reactions. Supply of components in the soil is limited, however, and as the crop is harvested, it dwindles, causing a decline in the quality and yield.Replace chemical fertilizers are taken from the soil by growing plants. However, they are also designed to enhance the growth potential of the soil, and fertilizer can create a better growing environment than natural soil. They can also be tailored to the type of crop being grown. Typically, fertilizer consisting of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium compounds. They also contain elements that enhance plant growth.The main component in fertilizers are nutrients essential for plant growth. Plants use nitrogen in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and hormones. When plants lack nitrogen, they are characterized by reduced growth and yellowing of leaves. Plants also need phosphorus, a component of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and some protein. It is also necessary to provide the energy to drive the chemical reactions of metabolism. Without enough phosphorus, plant growth is reduced. Potassium is another major substances that get plants off the ground. It is used in the synthesis of proteins and key plant processes. Yellowing, spotting dead tissue, and weak stems and roots are all indications of the plants that do not have enough potassium.Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are also an important ingredient in the growth of plants. They are only included in the fertilizer in small amounts, however, because most soils naturally contain enough components. Other materials needed in relatively small amounts for plant growth. These micronutrients include iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, and boron, which primarily functions as a cofactor in the enzymatic reaction. Although they may be present in small amounts, these compounds are no less important for growth, and without them the plant would die.Many different substances are used to provide the essential nutrients needed for effective fertilizer. These compounds can be mined or isolated from natural sources. Examples include sodium nitrate, seaweed, bones, guano, potassium, and phosphate rock. These compounds can also be synthesized chemically from basic raw materials. This will include things such as ammonia, urea, nitric acid, ammonium and phosphate. Because these compounds exist in several physical states, fertilizer can be sold as a solid, liquid, or slurry.HistoryThe process of adding a substance to enhance the capacity of soil to grow its development in the early days of agriculture. Ancient farmers knew that the first result on a piece of land much better than in subsequent years. This causes them to move to a new area under cultivation, which again showed the same pattern of results was reduced from time to time. Finally, it was found that the growth of plants on a plot of land can be improved by spreading manure all over the ground.Over time, the technology becomes more refined fertilizer. New substances which enhance plant growth found. The Egyptians are known to have been added to the ashes of weeds burned to the ground. The writings of Ancient Greece and Rome showed that a variety of animal manure is used, depending on the type of soil or the plants grow. It is also unknown at this point leguminous plants growing in the soil before planting wheat is profitable. Other types of materials added include sea-shells, clay, vegetable waste, waste from different manufacturing processes, and various other junk.The research compiled in fertilizer technology began in the early seventeenth century. Early scientists such as Francis Bacon and Johann Glauber explain the beneficial effect of the addition of saltpeter to the ground. Glauber developed the first complete mineral fertilizer, which is a mixture of saltpeter, lime, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and potassium. As a scientific theory developed chemistry, chemical plant needs was found, leading to improved fertilizer composition. Organic chemist Justus von Liebig demonstrated that plants need mineral elements such as nitrogen and phosphorus to grow. Chemical fertilizer industry can be said to have its beginnings with a patent issued to Sir John Lawes, which outlines a method for producing a form of phosphate is an effective fertilizer. Synthetic fertilizer industry experienced significant growth after the First World War, when the facility has been producing synthetic ammonia and nitrate for explosives has been converted for the production of nitrogen-based fertilizers.Raw MaterialsFertilizers described here is fertilizer compound fertilizer consisting of primary and secondary nutrients. This represents only one type of fertilizer, and other single nutrient types are also made. Raw material, in solid form, can be given to fertilizer manufacturers in bulk quantities thousand tons, the number of drums, or in a metal drum and container bags.Primary fertilizers include substances derived from nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. A variety of raw materials used to produce these compounds. When ammonia is used as a source of nitrogen in fertilizers, one of the synthetic production methods require the use of natural gas and air. Phosphorus component is made using sulfur, coal, and rock phosphate. Sources of potassium from potassium chloride, a major component of potash.Secondary nutrients added to some fertilizers to help make them more effective. Calcium is derived from limestone, that contain calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, calcium carbonate and magnesium. Sources of magnesium in fertilizer derived from dolomite. Sulfur is a material mined and added to the fertilizer. Other minerals include iron from ferrous sulfate, copper, and molybdenum oxides of molybdenum.ManufacturingProcessIntegrated plant has been designed to produce compound fertilizer. Depending on the actual composition of the final product, the production process will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.Nitrogen fertilizer component* 1 Ammonia is one of the components of fertilizer N can be synthesized from in-expensive raw materials. Since nitrogen is a significant portion of Earth's atmosphere, a process was developed to produce ammonia from the air. In this process,Fertilizer
 
natural gas and steam are pumped into the vessel. Furthermore, air is pumped into the system, and the oxygen is removed by burning natural gas and steam. This leaves primarily nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is removed and the ammonia produced by introducing an electric current into the system. Catalysts such as magnetite (Fe 3 O 4) has been used to improve the speed and efficiency of the synthesis of ammonia. Any dirt removed from the ammonia, and will be stored in tanks until further processing.
* 2 The ammonia itself is sometimes used as a fertilizer, is often converted into other substances for ease of handling. Nitric acid is produced by first mixing ammonia and air in the tank. With the catalyst, a reaction occurs that converts ammonia into nitric oxide. Nitric oxide then reacts with the water to produce nitric acid.
*
3 nitric acid and ammonia used to make ammonium nitrate. This material is a component of a good fertilizer because it has a high concentration of nitrogen. Both ingredients are mixed in a tank and neutralization reactions occur, producing ammonium nitrate. This material can then be stored until it is ready to sand and mixed with other fertilizer components.
 
FertilizerPhosphorus fertilizer component* 4 To isolate phosphorus from phosphate rock, is treated with sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid produced. Some of this material reacts further with sulfuric acid and nitric acid to produce triple superphosphate, an excellent source of phosphorus in solid form.* 5 Some phosphoric acid also reacts with ammonia in a separate tank. This reaction produces ammonium phosphate, other fertilizers good primer.Potassium fertilizer component* 6 Potassium chloride is usually supplied to fertilizer manufacturers in bulk. Factory transform it into a more usable form by granulating it. This makes it easier to mix the fertilizer with the other components in the next step.Granulation and blending* 7 To produce fertilizer in the form of the most useful, each different compounds, ammonium nitrate, potassium chloride, ammonium phosphate and triple superphosphate and sand mixed together. One of the granulation method involves placing a solid material into a rotating drum that has tilted axis. As the drum rotates, pieces of solid fertilizer take the form of small balls. They passed through a screen that separates the adequate sized particles. A layer of inert dust which is then applied to the particles, keeping any moisture retention of the discrete and inhibiting. Finally, the particles are dried, completing the process of granulation.* 8 Different types of particles are mixed together in appropriate proportions to produce composite fertilizer. Mixing was done in a large mixing drum that rotates a certain number of turns to produce the best mix. After mixing, fertilizer emptied onto a conveyor belt, which transports the packing machine.Bagging* 9 Fertilizer is usually supplied to the farmers in a big bag. To fill the bag of fertilizer was first delivered to the large hopper. The exact amount released from the hopper into the bag held open with a clamping device. Bags are on a vibrating surface, which allows better packing. When filling is complete, the bag is transported upright for a machine that seals closed. Bags are then conveyored to the palletizer, which stacks multiple bags, preparing them for shipment to distributors and eventually to farmers.Quality ControlTo ensure the quality of manure produced, monitor manufacturers products at every stage of production. Raw materials and finished products all undergo physical and chemical tests to demonstrate that they meet the specifications that have been developed previously. Some of the characteristics tested include pH, appearance, density, and melting point. Since the production of fertilizer governmentally regulated, composition analysis tests run on samples to determine the total nitrogen content, phosphate levels, and other elements that affect the chemical composition. Various other tests were also carried out, depending on the specific nature of the composition of the fertilizer.Byproducts / wasteA relatively small amount of nitrogen contained in the fertilizer applied to the soil is actually assimilated by plants. Many washed into nearby bodies of water or a water filter into the ground. It has added a large amount of nitrate in the water consumed by the public. Several medical studies show that certain disorders of the urinary system and the kidneys are the result of excessive nitrate in drinking water. It is also thought that it is very dangerous for the baby and can even be potentially carcinogenic.Nitrate contained in fertilizers are not considered harmful in themselves. However, certain bacteria in the soil convert nitrate into nitrite ions. Research has shown that when nitrite ions are ingested, they can enter the bloodstream. There, they bond with hemoglobin, a protein which is responsible for storing oxygen. When the nitrite ion binds with hemoglobin, it loses its ability to store oxygen resulting in serious health problems.Nitrosamines Another potential byproduct of nitrate in fertilizers. They are the result of natural chemical reactions nitrate. Nitrosamines have been shown to cause tumors in laboratory animals, feeding a fear that the same thing could happen in humans. There is, however, no studies that show an association between the use of fertilizers and human tumors.FutureFertilizer research currently focuses on reducing the environmental impact harnful fertilizer use and find new, cheaper sources of fertilizer. Things like that are being investigated for making more environmentally friendly fertilizer improved application methods, provision of fertilizer in a form that is less susceptible to runoff, and create a more concentrated mixture. New sources of fertilizer are also being investigated. It has been found that sewage sludge contains many nutrients needed for good fertilizer. Unfortunately, it also contains certain substances such as lead, cadmium, and mercury in concentrations that would harm the plants. Efforts are underway to remove unwanted elements, making this material a viable fertilizer. Another source that is being developed is a fertilizer. The first is the manure fertilizer, but they are not used on a large scale due to their treatment has been proved to be too expensive. As technology improves and costs decrease, this material will become a viable new fertilizer. 

Make a Computer Mouse

Designers in the computer industry is not only seeking to "build a better mousetrap" but to build the best mouse. The computer mouse is an accessory for the personal computer has become an essential part of the operation of the computer. The tiny device fits neatly into the crook of the hands of users and allows the user, through a very limited movement of the hand and fingers to "point and click" instructions to the computer. A ball rolling on the bottom of the mouse gives instructions on where to move the cursor (pointer) on the monitor or the screen, and one to three buttons (depending on the design) allows the user to say yes by clicking the button to the right of the computer instruction for the next operation.HistoryDr Douglas Engelbart, a professor with the Stanford Research Institute in Menlo Park, Calif., developed the first device that came to be known as the mouse in 1964. At that time, the arrow keys on the keyboard is the only way to move the cursor around on the screen, and the inefficient and awkward. Dr Engelbart made a small brick-like mechanism with a button on top and two wheels on the bottom. Two wheels is detected horizontal and vertical movement, and the unit is rather difficult to maneuver. The unit is connected to a computer with a cable so the signal can be transmitted electrically motion to the computer to look at the monitor. One colleague Dr Engelbart thought long tail wired device looks like a mouse, and the name stuck.Other scientists, especially those in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), has also been searching for a method to move the cursor and point to objects on the computer screen. They tried steering wheel, knee switch, and pen light, but, in the tests than mice Engelbart, it was a rat that roared. NASA engineers are concerned, however, about the mouse spacewalks will take away from the work surface in the space without the weight.In 1973, at the bottom of the mouse wheel has been replaced with ball, free-rolling single, and two more buttons (for a total of three) was added to the top. The creature is called both a mouse and pointing device, and combined with the Xerox Alto computer, one of the first personal computers. Alto has a graphical user interface (GUI), ie, the user points the icon, or picture symbols, and a list of operations called menu and clicking on them to cause the computer to open the file, print, and perform other functions. Computer operating method was later adapted by the Macintosh and Windows operating systems.Stimulated the development of the personal computer explosion of applications for devices that are small enough to be used in a number of work stations. Engineers can develop computer-aided design at their own table, and the mouse is perfect for drawing and composing. Mouse also started to produce offspring, collectively called input / output devices, such as trackballs, which is basically a mouse lying on its back so that the user can not move the ball rolled over the surface of the entire unit. Military, air traffic controllers, and video game players now have their own pets. Mechanical sensors in both types of devices being replaced by optical-electronic sensor system patented by Mouse Systems, is more efficient and lower cost. An optical mouse with no moving parts developed for use in a special mouse pad with grid lines; glow of the illuminated mouse grid, a number of photodetector amount and orientation of the grid lines crossed, and the data direction are translated into cursor movements on the screen.Mouse began to multiply rapidly. Apple Computer introduced the Macintosh in 1984, and the operating system used mouse. Other operating systems such as the Commodore Amiga, Microsoft Windows, Vision Visicorp, and many more user interface graphics and mouse included. Improvements were added to make the sensor less prone to collecting dust, to make scrolling easier with a wheel added on the top, and to make the mouse wirelessly using radio frequency signals (borrowed from a garage door opener) or infrared signals (adapted from the television or remote control).Rat AnatomyBody"Skin" is the body of the mouse, the hard outer plastic that guide the user on a flat surface. This "tail" is a power cord that led out from one end of the mouse and finishing in connection with the Central Processing Unit (CPU). At the tail end, one to three key external contacts for small power switch. Pressing the button closes a switch with a single click; electric, closed circuit, and the computer has received the command.At the bottom of the mouse, plastic hatch fits in a rubber ball, exposing part of the ball. Inside, a ball held by the wheel and two shaft support. As the ball rolling on the surface, the shaft turns with the movement of both horizontal and vertical motion response. At one end of each of the two shafts, spoked wheels also turned out. Like the fingers play, infrared light signals from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) flicker through your fingers and is intercepted by a light detector. Dark and light photo transistor is described by a pulse of electricity that goes into the interface integrated circuit (IC) in the mouse. Toll told IC that has tracked the ball left-right and up-down, and the IC ordered the cursor to move accordingly on the screen.Interface integrated circuits mounted on a printed circuit board (PCB) which is a framework that all the internal workings mouse attached. Integrated circuit, or computer chip, gather information from the switches and signals from the photo transistor and sends the data stream to your computer.BrainEach mouse design also has its own software called a driver. The driver is an external brain that allow computers to understand the mouse signal. The driver tells the computer how to interpret the mouse IC data stream including speed, direction, and command is clicked. Some mouse drivers allow users to define specific actions for the buttons to adjust the resolution of the mouse (relative distance and travel mouse cursor). Mice were purchased as part of the computer has a built-in driver or programmed into a computer.Raw MaterialsThe outer shell mouse and most of the internal mechanical parts, including shafts and spoked wheels, made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic (ABS) are injection-molded. The ball is rubber coated metal, it is made by a particular supplier. The electric micro-switch (plastic and metal) are also off-the-shelf goods supplied by the subcontractor even though the mouse designers can specify the requirements applicable to the switch to make them easier or tougher to click. Integrated circuits or chips can be standard items, though each manufacturer has a proprietary chip made for use in a complete line of products. Power cord and overmolds (end connector) is provided by an outside source.Printed circuit board (PCB) in which the electrical and mechanical components are mounted are custom-made according to the design of the mouse. It is a flat, resin-coated sheet. Electrical resistors, capacitors, oscillators, integrated circuits (ICs), and other components made of various kinds of metal, plastic silicone and.DesignNew mouse design begins with a meeting between a product development manager, designer, marketing representatives, and ergonomics consulting experts (specialists in human movement and the effects of the various movements of the body part). Growing list of human factors guidelines specify any size hand, touch sensitivity, the amount of work, the support of the hand in a neutral position, posture user when operating the mouse, finger extensions needed to reach the buttons, use by both left - and right-handed individuals, not there is prolonged static electricity, and other comfort and safety requirements, it can be very different, depending on whether the mouse to be used in the office or home computer, for example. A design brief for the proposed mouse was written to explain the purpose of the product and what it achieves; see also proposed in accordance with the market anticipated.The design team returned to the table with a foam model; scores of different shapes can be made to the design of the mouse. User testing conducted on this model, the engineers can do this early testing themselves, or they may use focus groups as a typical user or observing one-on-one testing with a sample of users. When the model selection narrowed, more refined models of wood and painted made of the winning designs. Input gathered again at the feel, shape, and appearance models; expert ergonomic design also examines the possibility and confirmed that human factors guidelines have been achieved.When the optimal models are selected, the engineering team began designing the internal components. A three-dimensional rendering is computer generated, and the same data is used for machine-cut shape from the exterior shell with all the details. The mechanical and electronic engineers in accordance with the printed circuit board (and its electronics) and encoder mechanism (balls, shafts, wheels and LED source and a detector) in the structure. The process of fitting the job to the shell of recurrent changes, and process design-and-fit repeated until the mouse meets the design objectives and design team pleased with the results. Chip custom designed, manufactured on a trial basis, and tested, custom electronics will help the design meets performance goals and provide a unique, competitive and valuable characteristics.Diagram completed designs submitted to tooler project that began the process of modifying the machine to produce a mouse. Diagram produced tooling to injection-mold shell, for example. The size, shape, cavity volume, the number of gates through which plastic is injected into the mold, and the flow of plastic through the mold all tabulated and studied. After the last final tooling plan, the tools were cut using a computer-generated data. Samples of plastic shells created as "try a shot" to check the actual flow lines and confirmed that void is not induced. Changes made to perfect the process. Texture added to the external appearance of the shell by acid etching or sand blasting.Meanwhile, the engineering team has set up an assembly line for a new mouse design and conducted the court. When completed detailed design, tools have been produced, and test results have met the design team's goals and standards, the mouse is ready for mass production.ManufacturingProcessTo make a computer mouse, some manufacturing processes performed simultaneously to make different parts of the unit. These processes are described in the first three steps below. Pieces are then brought together for final assembly, as described in steps 4 through 7.1. In one set of manufacturing and assembly steps, printed circuit board (PCB) cut and ready. It is, on average, resin coated sheet to the design of surface-mount or through-hole design. Surface-mount versions are assembled almost entirely by machine. A computer-controlled automated sequencer puts the electrical components in the proper order to the board in a specified pattern.For through-hole PCB assembly, cable attachment of electronic components inserted in the holes in the PCB. Every assembly line worker has an image for that part of the board and a special unit to add. Once all the components are mounted on the board, the lower surface of the board is passed through molten lead solder in the solder wave machine. This machine washes the board with flux to remove contaminants, and then heating the board and that is brought by the infrared heat to reduce the possibility of thermal shock. As the bottom of the sheet flow over the board, really smooth thin liquid molten solder, solder each wire moves up the capillary action, seal perforations, and repair components in place. Board soldered cooled. PCB visually checked at this stage, and the board rejected prior imperfect mechanism mounted encoder.2. Mechanism encoder (including rubber ball covered, wheel support, both spoked wheels and as they, LED, and its detectors) are assembled as a separate unit. The plastic parts are also produced by injection-molding according to proprietary specifications and cut from scrap plastic. Once assembled mechanism, the unit is fastened to the PCB using either clips or screws. This board is now completely assembled and subjected to quality control testing electronics.3. The mouse tail electric cables have also been produced using a set of cables, protect, and rubber cover. This cable has two additional pieces of molded rubber called overmolds. It is a device which prevents the cable strain relief from separating from the mouse or connector plug when the cord pull. Mouse makers typically design their own form to overmolds. Its near-overmold mice associated with housing, and, at the tail end, the connector is soldered to the cable and connector overmold appeared in place.4. Outer shell pieces are visually inspected once formed, trimming, and surface (completed) treatment and prior to assembly. Outer shell are assembled in four steps. PCB finishes and encoder assembly is inserted into the bottom of the shell. The buttons are mounted on the top of the housing, the cable is attached, and the top and bottom are screwed together using automatic screwdriver.5. Electronic final examination performance and quality do when assembling essentially complete. Rubber or neoprene feet with pre-applied adhesive sheet to one side is added to the bottom of the mouse.6. While the physical design and assembly tools described above has taken place, the programming team has developed, tested, and reproduce mouse driver firmware. Firmware is called because it lies in the nature of software and hardware consists of a combination code on the integrated circuit and the translation direction of the mouse movement and micro-switch signals that the receiving computer needs to understand when the mouse is attached. When the driver has been developed, own factory testers run through rigorous testing, and both the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the European Commission (CE-an organization that regulates radio emission and electrical shock) also approved electronically. Approved driver data is encoded and produced in bulk on a diskette.7. The FCC requires that a signal or communications devices including mice bear a label identifying the particular company and product specifications. The labels are pre-printed on durable paper with strong adhesive so they can not be easily removed. A label is pasted at the bottom of the mouse, and the mouse bagged in plastic. This device, the driver diskette, and an instruction book with registration and warrantee information is boxed and prepared for shipment and sale.Quality ControlThe use of computer-generated design build quality and time savings in the product. Data can be stored and changed quickly, so experiment with shapes, layout components, and the overall look can be tried and iterative adjustments can be made. Computer-aided design data also accelerate a reviewUnder the body, the outer hard plastic mouse pad users maneuver is a rubber ball that changed as the mouse moves. The ball is held in place by two wheels and shaft support. As the rolls, the shaft turns with the movement of both horizontal and vertical motion response. At one end of each of the two shafts, spoked wheels also turned out. Like the fingers play, infrared light signals from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) flicker through your fingers and is intercepted by a light detector. Dark and light photo transistor is described by a pulse of electricity that goes into the interface integrated circuit (IC) in the mouse. Toll told IC that has tracked the ball left and right and up and down, sending commands through a cable to the Central Processing Unit (CPU), and ordered the cursor moves according to the display.
 
Under the body, the outer hard plastic mouse pad users maneuver is a rubber ball that changed as the mouse moves. The ball is held in place by two wheels and shaft support. As the rolls, the shaft turns with the movement of both horizontal and vertical motion response. At one end of each of the two shafts, spoked wheels also turned out. Like the fingers play, infrared light signals from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) flicker through your fingers and is intercepted by a light detector. Dark and light photo transistor is described by a pulse of electricity that goes into the interface integrated circuit (IC) in the mouse. Toll told IC that has tracked the ball left and right and up and down, sending commands through a cable to the Central Processing Unit (CPU), and ordered the cursor moves according to the display.part of the specification, process tooling, assembly and design procedures so little opportunity for conflict.At least three-step quality control performed during assembly. An electronic check done on the PCB after the components attached (and soldered in place if the through-hole assembly methods are used) and before the plastic mechanism attached. The plastic parts (mechanism and encoder outer shell) are visually inspected when they are finished but before they connect to the board and electronics, this prevents the dismantling or disposing of electronics due to a defective shell, for example. Finally, the device is completely assembled and the other electronic examination performance; 100% of the mice produced by Kensington Technology Group is connected to a computer operated and tested before they are packaged. As mentioned above, both FCC and CE regulate aspects of operating a mouse, so they are also tested and approved driver data.Byproducts / wasteThe computer mouse maker produces no byproduct of the manufacture of the mouse, but most offer a variety of similar devices for different applications. Compatible or interchangeable parts are incorporated in the new design or multiple designs whenever possible to avoid the design, tooling, assembly and modification costs.Minimal waste. Mouse skin ABS plastic is recyclable and can be ground, shaped, and reground many times. Other plastic and metal scrap produced in minute quantities and can be recycled or sold.FutureDevices modified mice currently on the market. Inserts Internet mouse scrolling wheel between the two buttons to scroll through web pages easier; versions are more sophisticated add buttons that can be programmed by the user to perform Internet functions, such as moving backward or forward, return to the home page, or start a new search. One version of the mouse was returned to the second floor where two foot pedals or replace the pads and the ball, the pedal is pressed to move the cursor and click the second. Mice that communicates wirelessly with radio signals are available, and the mouse has been discarded altogether with the touchpad. Users running a finger across the touchpad for cursor positioning, and web pages can be scrolled and other forward, certain moves. Many of these adaptations are designed to eliminate repetitive stress disease and keep the forearm strain.Mouse inventor, Dr. Engelbart, never believed mouse will reach thirty-something non-technical or retain its name. In fact, both the mouse and trackball offspring become increasingly popular as a form more convenient, less cleaning and maintenance required, and the reliability and longevity increases. Future developments in the rats will follow the evolution of the Internet and includes more options for programmability, such as moving the hand to double the number of available functions. Mouse could be extinct someday, and the most likely candidate to replace a device that tracks eye movements of the user computer and follow the proper cursor movement and signaling functions.

Making Video Games

Video games are played in the arcade, at home on television or personal computer, and a portable handheld game. They are packaged in a large console, game paks that can only be played on the same hardware manufacturers (ie Nintendo, Sega Genesis and Sony Playstation), and as a CD-ROM. Consisting of a program that instructs the computer to display certain visual and audio effects, video game utilizing the latest technology to deliver a fast-paced entertainment. The latest statistics show that 70% of all children in the United States have a home video game system. More than four billion dollars spent on video arcade games per year.HistoryAn early video games, pinball machines were introduced during the 1930s and remained popular until the 1970s. In 1971, a video arcade game called Computer Space was produced. Created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, Computer Space was the first real coin-operated video game, but for various reasons, never became popular. However, it laid the foundation for the next video game that Bushnell and Dabney introduced: Pong arcade game phenomenal success. Modeled after a game of ping pong, it is an electronic game in which players try to hit a blinking dot paddle Videos pass their opponents. With the success of Pong, Bushnell and Dabney started Atari Company, and in 1975, they introduced a home version of Pong. In 1976, Warner Communications bought Atari for $ 28 million and expanded its line of home video game cartridges.At the same time Bushnell and Dabney is developing Pong, Ralph Baer, ​​who worked for Sanders Associates, has designed a home video game system called Odyssey. Developed in 1969, Baer system eventually produced and distributed by Magnavox in 1972. Odyssey is a package of 12 different plug-in game that is placed on a circuit card. Each game comes with a plastic coating that, when placed on top of the television screen, simulating the appropriate background. For example, a layer of plastic that includes a hockey arena with a hockey game. Odyssey also offers an electronic shooting gallery with four additional games and electronic guns. Eighty-five thousand systems sold.Rapid advances in electronic technology during the 1970s led to the development of more complex games, such as Space Invaders and Pac-Man. Introduced in 1983 as a joint venture between the Japanese company Namco and Midway USA, Pac-Man has sold hundreds of thousands of games and remains one of the most popular video game.When personal computers became available, computer games were created. Many of these games are adaptations of the arcade or home video game system, but also developed a unique game. Computer games industry grew rapidly during the 1980s supported by various companies, especially the Nintendo Corporation. In the late 1980s, the CD-ROM was introduced. These disks can hold more information on them, and enable the development of more sophisticated, interactive games. In 1995, digital video disc (DVD) was first produced for home computers. Because they have a storage capacity of more than twenty times larger than the CD-ROM, they promised to revolutionize gaming.DesignThe design is a key aspect of making all the video games. This is usually done by a team of skilled computer programmers, writers, artists, and other game designers. During the construction phase, they produce game specification, which includes the type of game, objective, and graphics.While creating video games rarely step by step process, there are many tasks that must be accomplished in the development stage. At first, the type and purpose of the game is determined. In general, the games into six categories, or genre, including combat, strategy shooting, simulation, adventure, and running, jumping and avoiding (RJA). Fighting games require players to battle each other or the computer. Today, they are the most popular and includes titles such as Mortal Kombat and Street Fighter. Shooting game involves battles in which players try to destroy enemy tanks, vessels, or aircraft. Strategy games including classics like chess, bridge or chess. Simulation is a game, which reproduces real-life situations such as flying or driving. Adventure game is a computerized version of the fantasy role-playing game. RJA is their game like Super Mario game in which characters try to achieve a certain goal when they were hindered by various obstacles.The action of the game is dependent on the desired place. An arcade game should have immediate action. A home version usually includes a variety of skill levels to keep players interested for a longer period. A handheld version of the video game is simplified to be played in miniature.Raw MaterialsAlthough the most important raw material in creating video games is imagination, a number of equipment needed to bring the imagination alive. Once the story has been made, the characters and backgrounds are drawn in the storyboard, and then transferred to an electronic format by the artists directly or through digitization. Lifelike action filmed and sound recorded on digital audio tape (DAT).Once the design is complete, a variety of raw materials used to produce video games. This includes the materials that go into making the storage media, accessories, and packaging. The most common storage media are floppy disks and CDs. It's made with hard plastic such as polycarbonate. CD has a thin layer of aluminum or silver coating. In addition, they are coated with a layer, a protective clear acrylic. Floppy disks are made with thin plastic coated with magnetic material. Plastics are also used to create accessory pieces that require some computer games. In each of the plastic used, various fillers and dyes are added to modify its characteristics. Typically, computer games are packed in cardboard boxes so decorated.ManufacturingProcessMaking video games is a lengthy process multifaceted that can last up to a year to finish one game.Creating a story* 1 Typically, authors are responsible for creating a complete game story with a setting, characters, and plot. It gives purpose and make the game more enjoyable for players. It also provides a destination for players and guidelines for the rules of the game. This information is then used to make the game manual. Often, the inspiration for this story came from popular movies or books. This story was transferred to a storyboard, where the original image is also added. Storyboard is a series of sketches of the panel attached to the board. Each sketch is accompanied with the dialog stories and / or description of the character.Catch the action with the artOnce the type of game and the story described, the game format can be determined. This format refers to what the player sees when playing the game. There are a variety of formats, including platform, scrolling top-down, isometric, three-dimensional (3D),
 
Making video games is a lengthy process multifaceted. A team of designers, artists, and programmers work together to create the final product. Once the type of game and the story described, the game format can be determined. This format refers to what the player sees when playing the game and the game can utilize one or more of these formats. Add pictures to storyboard artists, including character descriptions and arrows showing how the character will move. Sound and live as the action is recorded.Making video games is a lengthy process multifaceted. A team of designers, artists, and programmers work together to create the final product. Once the type of game and the story described, the game format can be determined. This format refers to what the player sees when playing the game and the game can utilize one or more of these formats. Add pictures to storyboard artists, including character descriptions and arrows showing how the character will move. Sound and live as the action is recorded.and text. Gaming platforms are those who have a view of the player character. Top-down game gives a glimpse of the player character. They are often used for war games. The format is an isometric top-down game, which uses perspective tricks to give the illusion of 3D. True 3D gaming is just now becoming a reality with the introduction of CDs and DVDs. This is the future of computer gaming format. Text format games have limited graphics and only used for interactive fiction. In general, all games can use one or more of these formats.* 2 this artist add pictures to storyboard, including character descriptions and arrows showing how the character will move.* 3 final image is made in two ways. An artist can create a final image by creating graphics converter. Converted graphics are images that have been drawn by the artist using a computer. More life-like images created by action film with actors and then electronically digitized images. Artists examine measures recorded on RGB monitor that produces a brighter image and select each
 
Once the programmer has written a program for the game and the sound is recorded and action has been digitized, the game code is transferred to a compact disk master. This disk will be used to mass produce thousands of copies. Disc that is inserted into the laser cutting machine. While the disk is spinning, the binary code of a computer game program sends a signal to the laser. Laser will then cut a hole in the resistive layer images in accordance with the program. Disk then chemically etched and metal layers.Once the programmer has written a program for the game and the sound is recorded and action has been digitized, the game code is transferred to a compact disk master. This disk will be used to mass produce thousands of copies. Disc that is inserted into the laser cutting machine. While the disk is spinning, the binary code of a computer game program sends a signal to the laser. Laser will then cut a hole in the resistive layer images in accordance with the program. Disk then chemically etched and metal layers.frame that will be used to create action. Typically, six to 10 frames used to display characters walking / running one step. Four to five frames are required to describe the punch or kick. The background was also created by the artist using both converted and digitized images. Although it may seem cohesive to the audience, the background is actually a collage of different images.Dialogue and voice recordingeffect* 4 The dialogue and sound effects were recorded in the studio with various audio techniques. Once recorded on digital audio tape (DAT), a computerized voice synthesizer to a computer specifically modify and translate voice into data.Writing program* 5 After all the initial design elements specified, programming, or coding, can begin. The first step in this process is to draw a flowchart, which shows the logical development of a computer program. Various programming languages ​​are used like C + +, Java, or Visual BASIC. This code is usually produced by a team of programmers, each working on a different phase of the game, and can take up to seven months to produce. To speed up the coding process, the algorithms have been developed previously are modified and adapted to the new game. This is more efficient because it eliminates the need to constantly re-write the same program and reduce the likelihood of serious errors. Each action may require individual instructions written by programmers, and about 250,000 individual commands written to create a video game program. The sound and graphics are also to be programmed separately.Examination* 6 games development testing phase helps reveal the basic design and programming problems. Testing can be accomplished in several ways. The programmers can run the game and try to find the problem gross alone. In addition, professional playtesters used. These are people who are specifically trained to play the game and look for subtle errors. They usually game designers themselves, and have experience with different types of games. In addition to finding errors, playtesters also give critiques and suggestions to make the game better. In some cases, a computer game developer to use people from the general public to test the game. This gives them information about consumer acceptance. Information gained from the last testing phase. Reprogramming then carried out until the game is right tweeked.Burning discs* 7 When the program is finished, the game code is transferred to a compact disk master. This disk will be used to mass produce thousands of copies required. Master disk consists of smoothly polished glass coated with an adhesive and photo resistive material. This disc is inserted into a laser cutting machine. While the disk is spinning, the binary code of a computer game program sends a signal to the laser. Laser will then cut a hole in the resistive layer images in accordance with the program. Disk then chemically etched and metal layers. At this point, it is an exact replica of the disc so.* 8 Copies of the opposite metal master disc is then created through a process known as electroforming. Using electric current, the metal is deposited on the surface of the master disk. This is a copy of upside then used to create a master some metal through a similar process. It's the master of metal used to make multiple copies of stamping upside down.* 9 To mass produce plastic compact disk, a copy of stamping dies inserted into the injection molding machine. In this machine, polycarbonate pellets are placed in the hopper and drawn through the long screw. Though withdrawn, the plastic into liquid. It is then injected into a mold with a copy stamping. It is held under pressure for some time and then allowed to cool. As it cools, hardens gives exactly the same pattern of holes as a master. It is then freed from the dead and examined disadvantages. If no defects are found, the disk was rejected.* 10 Disk then transferred to the engine, which punches a hole in the middle. It is then coated with a thin film of aluminum or silver either using vacuum deposition techniques. Next, apply a clear acrylic plastic. Finally, the disk is transported to the assembly and silk screen printed label on it.Game packs* 11 All components of the game are transported to the packing line. Here, every part of the game is placed in a box, a cardboard mold. This process can either be done by hand or by automated machinery. The boxes are then conveyored game to shrink-wrap machines that seal in plastic. They cased and ready for shipment.Quality ControlThe process of transferring the program to the computer game compact disk, or DVD, should be done in a clean and dust free. This is because dust particles much larger than the hole carved in the disk, and the particles can damage the disc. Therefore, the quality control measures that are being taken to strictly control the environment around the disk-making. Other visual inspections performed at various points during manufacture disk. Random sample of disks so also tested to make sure it is working properly. Outside the examination involved in the making of the disc, the other components of the game are also checked to ensure they meet the required specifications. At the end of the manufacturing process, a random sample of the finished product inspected to make sure it includes all the necessary components.FutureComputer game programming continues to become more sophisticated as the available hardware improves. The most important recent advances that promise to revolutionize the game is the development of DVD technology. This will allow a much larger amount of information to be included in the game program. This should improve many aspects of the game such as routine artificial intelligence, graphics, and special effects. Things like video clips are included to make the game more interactive.